, 

The failure of The Great Leap Forward: An analysis on causes and preventable steps not taken.

 Abstract

In the commencement of the Mao era, it was evident that China had problems economically and socially beyond its original perception. Mao Zedong was given the indirect pressure to radically transform a devastated economy into a thriving western model in a very short time frame. The chairman’s largest initiative during his reign, The Great Leap Forward was designed to use the sheer population to engage in labor intensive work in grain and steel to kick start China’s economy. In the present, The Great Leap Forward is regarded as one of the costliest failures in human history with over 35 million people dead in a short 4 year span. The failures of the Great Leap Forward were primarily caused by the people and the leaders. The leaders were pressured to radically change the state by its people but the decisions during The Great Leap Forward affected the people greatly. One of the most detrimental aspects of the failure was the efficiency of its labor due to the technologically backward state of China in addition to its lack of infrastructure. Furthermore, the aggressiveness of the decisions made by the leaders had a major impact as they were partially influenced by the global attention and the national fervor of optimism. In addition, propaganda and the lack of integrity projected towards the people of China ultimately played a large role in the failure of The Great Leap Forward. Although many benefits of The Great Leap Forward are evident today and reflected in its history, the human lives and other costs were not worth the end result. Consequently, The Great Leap Forward designed to dramatically transform China had ultimately ended in a tragedy due to the decisions made by its leaders, the efficiency of its labor and the lack of integrity by the government.

In the wake of a new communist era in China’s history, it was evident that the greatest weakness of China was its economy and the state of its people. Mao’s realizations of the archaic system led to an economic movement and the largest mobilization of humanity in history known as The Great Leap Forward. Designed to rapidly industrialize China, the movement planned to use its great population to boost the production capabilities of food and eventually other products. However, due to many poor decisions and other factors, the economic movement became responsible for estimated 35 million deaths and is regarded as one of the most costly tragedies in history[1]. As a result, The Great Leap Forward influenced China’s History to a large extent as many historians claim that the economic movement set China a decade behind many neighboring countries[2]. Therefore, the significance of The Great Leap forward primarily lies in the aftermath of the failure due to the crucial implications of the modern age. Historians question the advancements China may have made without the detrimental set back known as The Great Leap Forward. Consequently, what were the factors that contributed in the failure of the economic movement? Were they preventable? The answer lies in the crux of three primary aspects of The Great Leap Forward; the attitude and approach of the decisions that were made by Mao and other leaders, the mental well being of the world’s most populous nation and the simple inefficiency of the labor itself. Furthermore, there were preventable steps of the major factors that may have aided the radical change. Therefore, analyzing the major causes of China’s economic failure and studying the preventable steps illustrates the true errors of The Great Leap Forward in a broader perspective.

Decisions made by the Chinese leaders during the economic movement are highly regarded as ones that were made with little consideration and out of haste astheywere made by the highly pressured leaders from Mao’s promise of a better life for all Chinese citizens[3]. In the establishment of the communist state, the Chinese leaders including Mao and his deputies faced an unprecedented amount of pressure from the people to rapidly bring change and life into the dead economy. However, in the end it was evident that the decision to harvest collectively had failed due to fundamental reasons the leaders had ignored. Why? The answer lies in the primary ways that the decisions were made. As a result, the reasons of the failure included the overall aggressiveness of the decisions, the inattention to long term issues and the decisions influenced by international perception that contributed to the overall failure of the grand operation.

In The Great Leap Forward, the most detrimental aspect of the decision making process that damaged the movement was its aggressiveness and the length of its expectations without consideration of the reality of its state. One of Mao’s core beliefs was the implementation of the sheer number of Chinese as labor forces to kick start China’s economy[4]. Despite the plainness and simplicity, there wasmuch credibility in this notion. Not only was there vast population already working in labor intensive environments already, they were well distributed to carry out mass production of grain[5]. As a result, the logical step was carried out. However, the aggressive nature of the implementation contributed in the failure to foresee many problems including the lack of infrastructure that would allow workers to consistently produce grain to sustain itself and gradually boost the economy. It included the failure to maintain rich, nutrient filled higher yielding soils and the inefficiency of backyard furnaces. Despite the lack of foresight, large communes of more than 5000 families were immediately setup[6] and the concept of sharing and collective bargaining[7] swept through the minds of the people in the communes. The fervent faith in the government’s decisions was evident in the people and their actions. The people quickly began to offer valuable possessions for the country to utilize such as pots, pans and other belongings of value. However, the efficient technologies were not developed enough for the collective labor to be efficient and beneficial. For example, China did not have the necessary quantity and quality of infrastructures to produce steel in bulk quantity. Therefore, the decision to encourage the people to create individual backyard furnaces yielded little usable steel compared to the intensive labor that the people had invested. In the end, the leaders executed an insufficiently devised plan in haste before the necessary technologies and more efficient methods were developed leading to far greater consequences that would later damage the morale of the people.

In The Great Leap Forward, one of the major errors in the decision making was the lack of attention to long term issues. In the wake of the new communist state, Mao Zedong and his deputies seemed free to make quick decisive decisions. However, in the infancy of the communist state, Mao Zedong had little autonomy and space but to promise a radical change[8]. The question of whether the extent of change was the most useful or necessary was discounted. Furthermore, the leaders were pressured to make radical decisions and eventually it led to making detrimental decisions that would only satisfy the large working class for a short term. Therefore, when the failure of mass workers in communes had been shown to the public, Mao Zedong’s deputy minister Liu Shaoqiimmediately signed the grants to over 150 million middle class farmers[9]. One of the causes of the large land grant was the knowledge of the fragility of China as a new Communist state and the paranoia of uprisings in the minds of leaders. As a result, after the first initial failure of The Great Leap Forward, communes were dissolved, land was granted and many decisions were for the short term appeasement of the general public. In addition, Deputies falsely condemned and executed many intelligent, useful scientists and innovative minds in fear of revolutionary independent ideals. Ultimately, China lacked the necessary tools to compete with the outside world in terms of technology and development leading to the further delay of an educated intellectual generation. One of many great minds persecuted and confined was Chen Han-Seng, a socialist in the midst of the revolution[10]. However, unlike many alleged victims, Chen’s purpose was for the benefit of communist China for the long term. He is credited for many potential social reform ideas that would have potentially brought much prosperity for many generations including the proposition of different harvests and the development of farmers’ organizations[11]. Ultimately, the decisions to largely appease the general public opposed to regarding the long term issues affected China significantly in the later stages of The Great Leap Forward.

Decisions in the social and economic reform process were to a certain extent made from what image China would be perceived as. China’s sudden change to a major communist state had already put the country at the heart of the world stage. Logically, to avoid increased attention and infiltration of Western ideals, China’s leaders made sure it was perceived in a certain manner in the world. The veiling of injustice and failures were one of the main priorities in the decisions that were made. For example, in the first year of the setup of communes, grain production reported a harvest ten times than the actual amount, resulting in the death of over fifteen million people over a sixteen month time period due to starvation[12]. Furthermore, throughout the fifties, the death toll was hidden from the global media[13]. In addition to the potential vulnerability, the outside world influenced the China’s decisions due to its own pride. The logic behind the haste of the project was for the reason that the pride of China and Mao’s fervent motivation of demonstrating the capabilities of the most populous country in the world. To some extent, mass communes and backyard steel production were designed to illustrate the perfect orchestration and prosperity of communism on the world stage. Consequently, outside influences such as the American dream affected the decisions of leaders in primary aspects of pride and paranoia.

Throughout the twentieth century the middle class Chinese peasants endured and suffered injustice on a large scale. Prior to the birth of a new communist era, not only did the physical abuse and exhaustion become evident but also the psychological damage it had done. The peasants who formed the largest group in China worked under in the lands of minority group of owners who would collect a large tax for working on their land. As a result, the peasants could not afford to feed themselves or purchase land[14]. Ultimately, the injustices of land rights would trap the peasants into a perpetual vicious cycle. As the birth of a new era began and Mao Zedong promised land grant to all peasants prior to The Great Leap Forward, the people rejoiced and an optimistic fervor swept through China. However, as the human costs and hardship began repeated in the economic reform, the people returned to the psychologically and physically unhealthy state. Optimism vanished and mental exhaustion was evident due to the propaganda and the constant inconsistencies and fluctuations in the economic reform.

In the sudden economic and social revolution that had occurred, there was avid optimism of the government[15]. The problem for the leaders of the communist party was maintaining the healthy optimism and the mental well being. As a result, the constant negative aspects of The Great Leap Forward had to consistently be met with a sense of achievement and prosperity. Therefore, propaganda was used extensively to aid the mental exhaustion that was faced. However, often such propaganda deceived and in the end exhausted the mental health it was devised to control. Its efficiency was most evident in the early period of the reformation. Posters were used to illustrate a united people in a utopia in addition to incentives and encouragement of working hard for the overall quality of life[16].Sanitationand cleansing the streets was awarded by various luxuries such as towels and working tools along with the music industry producing labor encouraging tunes and jingles designed for a clean movement. However, despite clever and intricate propaganda and deception of harvest, people would only be content in their situation with the physical evidence of grain and steel and sufficient food. The use of incentives, posters and ideas could only hold for certain time frame before the inevitable truth about the inefficiencies would be revealed. Signs and posters that boasted false production of grain were found in many communes that led to other exaggerations of grain[17]. The affect of propaganda and deceit played a large role in the enthusiasm people in the communes had. In the end, the amount of trust the peasants had in the Communist party began to dwindle and eventually collapsed with the starvation that began to exponentially increase after the reform had taken place. Therefore the extensive use of propaganda combined with the lack of results gradually depleted the people’s enthusiasm, causing little faith in the communist party and the eventual halt of its operation.

In the minds of many middle class peasants in this period, it was evident that their attention was constantly diverted to different aspects of the society by the communist party. With the addition of communes, sanitation, killing of oriental hobby birds and the construction of waterways became the main priorities[18]. China’s sheer population was sufficient to carry out all the tasks necessary but the dilemma existed in the failure of each of the tasks. For example, the killings of oriental hobby birds were encouraged by the government due to its status as pests. However, this led to the survival of insects that damaged the production of grain on an astronomical scale. In addition, the construction of waterways and dams were one of the largest operations undertaken in the nineteenth century. Claims of moving 30 billion cubic meters, an estimated 30,000 workers had lost their lives. Water was desperately needed and a combined death toll of workers and peasants were at almost half a million. Gradually, the overall indifference to failure and death damaged the morale of the bulk of the peasants. Leaders of the communist party celebrated what little achievements that were made despite the hundreds of thousands that were killed due to starvation and working conditions. The middle class had previously gone through a rough transition, from the upper class control to the land grants to the set up of mass communes. As a result, the once proud and greatest display of government pride in the middle class steadilyfragmented into less overall support that affected future aspects of the operations on a large scale.

In assuring the most populous, uniformly demanding people in the history of mankind, its leaders failed in delivering results and failed by the extensive use of propaganda, the simple exhaustion, and inconsistency. In the introduction of a new era, the middle class’s optimism was unmatched and propaganda almost always found success in convincing the general public about certain issues. However, without physical results and an overall better environment, the morale would suffer indefinitely. When failure was apparent even in the eyes of the public, the communist parties failed to acknowledge the errors but celebrated what small area of achievement they had accomplished. In conclusion, many factors of propaganda and puzzling inconsistencies greatly affected the once proud and unmatched morale that existed with the birth of the communist state.

One of the most apparent errors of the Great Leap Forward was the simple inefficiency of the labor. While the framework greatest mobilization and mindset for a single cause had been laid, the execution of its purposes lacked the necessary knowledge and technology to make its use effective and efficiency of its investment of time, enthusiasm and money.During the same time, developed nations such as the Soviet Union, United States, Great Britain, France and other western countries used few specialized workers and tools to create double the quantity and better quality in a shorter period of time while in China, often there would not be enough infrastructure and tools for the peasants that resulted in many workers exhausting energy into unnecessary and futile tasks. Not only did the labor fail to produce the necessary amount to sustain China’s economy but it gradually wasted the potential work time for more beneficial labors[19]. The main sources of boosting the economy consisted of grain and steel production that displayed the fundamental errors which eventually greatly led to the downfall of The Great Leap forward.

In one of the most crucial aspects of the Chinese economy, well being and overall stability, grain was vital. Not only were products of grain the primary source of food for the peasants but was one of very few resources where the economy could gradually grow and flourish[20]. The large problem that was faced was the energy needed to produce grain. While some of the decently developed countries were able to utilize tier 2 tools and cattle to make the grain production more comfortable, the vast majority of labors done by Chinese peasants were highly intensive work. Daily lives would consist of constant digging, planting, picking in excruciating heat and back breaking conditions. Seeds were individually laid and irrigation systems were dug without useful tools. Consequently, such unforgiving labors led to disease, permanent disabilities and injured workers that required precious time, money and medical attention. Gradually, as time passed, the ineffective labor without the necessary tools began to be recognizable in the Chinese economy and mortality rate. In the year 1959, the death toll was five times higher than the year before[21]. As a result, the efficiency and the type of the labor almost guaranteed the inability to produce a sustainable amount and the inevitable downfall of a labor force.

The secondary source that was to some extent reliable in facilitating the economy was steel that was in high demand. The initial plan was to create a reliable base economy from steel for purposes when grain productions were low. In addition, industrialization required vast amounts of steel and China simply did not have the revenue to purchase large amounts of steel. The making of steel was very plain as urban areas would each construct a small furnace to produce steel. However, the difficulty of this procedure was immense. Construction of furnaces would require hours of digging in addition to many health hazards that included lack of sanitation and dangerous equipment. The majority of workers suffered severe or minor injuries due to the work place. As a result, attention, food and rehabilitation were needed that the government could not supply. In the end, the results helped the Chinese economy a small amount but could not justify the energy and resources invested into the operation.

The type of labor that was expected of peasants in The Great Leap Forward was crucial. The major problem that existed in grain production was its intensity and lack of knowledge to preventable mistakes such as sanitation issues and unbalanced work[22]. Continuous, repetitive and arduous labor resulted in minimal results with increased problems. Similarly, the production of steel that involved difficult physical work and great attention generated low quality and untradeable goods. Consequently, the primary goals on improving the Chinese economy involved intensive labor and devotion, ultimately breaking down the work force and stability.

It is evident that the failures of The Great Leap Forward existed in unique aspects of aggressive decision making by its leaders, mental exhaustion of its working population and the labor itself. Nevertheless, what were some of the actions necessary that would have ensured less deaths and failures? It is apparent that the aggressiveness of the decision making process contributed to a large extent in causing many problems. Consequently, it was vital that the very few intellectuals China had be utilized for solving the problems that were faced in grain and steel production. Furthermore, leaders such as Liu Shoaqi and Lin Biao were influenced by the demand for change that it was difficult to anticipate the negative outcomes of radical change in a new born, fragile communist state. Therefore, one of the actions necessary was the investment of time and money towards the development of technology through intellectuals to provide an efficient route of utilizing China’s workforce. In addition, a major aspect that became a large factor in the downfall of The Great Leap Forward was the mental exhaustion[23] peasants faced due to prior events and constant propaganda. The wise choice not taken in this aspect was showing integrity to the people. Contrary to constant force feed propaganda and the deception of grain production to prolong the inevitable, integrity would have liberated the difficult situation the communist party found itself in. When put into communes, the colossal labor force was mainly invested into only grain and steel manufacturing that was only efficient with a fraction of the number. As a result, if China were to harness fractions of its working force into productive and demanding aspects of labor such as rubber, copper and zinc[24] mining may have lessened the inevitable economic damage.

History has marked the efforts of The Great Leap Forward as one of the worst disasters in human history. This is acknowledged due to the overwhelming evidence that is recorded on the economic and social reform with the estimated death of approximately 35 million people in 3 year span. Despite such tragic losses, were there achievements made in this reform? The answer lies in aspects such as the united number of people and infrastructures that were set up. The sheer number that was mobilized demonstrated the potential of China. Furthermore, the devotion and faith the hundreds of millions of people had in the government also illustrated what has never been seen before due to its magnitude. In addition, irrigation systems and agricultural infrastructure were built[25]. Consequently, great feats of unity and dedication were shown in a small window during the beginning golden age of The Great Leap Forward.

The demise of the most ambitious movement of the twentieth century was evident due to many fundamental issues of aggressiveness, people’s mental health and the execution of labor. Aggressive decisions by Mao’s deputies set the ideal conditions for certain failure.  The environment prior to Mao`s era`s influence on the communist leaders and its people were great asleaders were able to use the injustice and fervor for change to create the greatest human work force in history. On the contrary, the wave of optimism that the people carried also pressured the leaders into promising a radical change and ultimately overwhelming, premature goals and ambition. As a result, the detrimental cycle began when communes and radical changes to society took place. Consequently, the aggressiveness without technology and infrastructure led to the inefficiency of labor and its labor intensity. Finally, as labor evolved into intensive tasks with little yield, the mental health of the people was severely damaged resulting in the complete failure of The Great Leap forward and the large loss of faith in the communist government.

Bibliography

Books

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Dikötter, Frank. Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe. New York: Walker publishing company, 2010.

Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Chinese civilization: a sourcebook. New York: The free press, 1993.

Frederick C. Teiwes, Warren Sun. China's road to disaster: Mao, central politicians, and provincial leaders in the unfolding of The Great Leap forward. New York: M.E. Sharp, 1999.

Lee, Ching Kwan. Re-envisioning the Chinese revolution. Chicago: Stanford University press, 2007.

Needham, Kirsty. A Season in Red: My Great Leap Forward Into the New China. Melbourne: Allen & Unwin, 2006.

Richard King, Zhun Li, Yigong Zhang. Heroes of China's great leap forward: two stories. Beijing: University of Hawaii Press, 2008.

Yang, Dali L. Calamity and Reform in China: State, Rural Society, and Institutional Change. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1996.

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Video Documentary

Jasper Becker, Hungry Ghosts - China's Secret Famine (Henry Holt, 1998)

 Li Rui, Lushanhuiyishilu[True Record of the Lushan Plenum] (Peking: Chunqiuchubanshe/Hunan jiaoyuchubanshe, 1989) [in Chinese]

 Li Zhisui, The Private Life of Chairman Mao - The Memoirs of Mao's Personal Physician (London, etc.: Random House, 1996)

 Roderick MacFarquhar, The Origins of the Cultural Revolution, Volume II: The Great Leap Forward, 1958-1960 (Columbia University Press, 1987)

 Roderick MacFarquhar, Timothy Cheek, Eugene Wu (eds), The Secret Speeches of Chairman Mao - From the Hundred Flowers to the Great Leap Forward (Cambridge, etc.: Harvard University Press, 1989)

 Peter J. Seybolt, Throwing the Emperor from His Horse - Portrait of a Village Leader in China, 1923-1995 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996)

 Frederick Teiwes and Warren Sun, China's Road to Disaster - Mao, Central Politicians, and Provincial Leaders in the Unfolding of the Great Leap Forward 1955-1959 (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 1998)

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[1]Dikötter, Frank. Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe. Pg 210-212

[2]Frederick C. Teiwes, Warren Sun. China's road to disaster: Mao, central politicians, and provincial leaders in the unfolding of The Great Leap forward. Pg 339-378

[3]Lee, Ching Kwan. Re-envisioning the Chinese revolution. Pg 420-442

[4]Yang, Dali L. Calamity and Reform in China: State, Rural Society, and Institutional Change. Pg 558-612

[5]Richard King, Zhun Li, Yigong Zhang. Heroes of China's great leap forward: two stories. Pg 793-799

[6]The Great Leap Forward. 23 11 2004. 8 june 2011 <http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/great_leap_forward.htm>. (website)

[7]The Great Leap Forward. 23 11 2004. 8 june 2011 <http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/great_leap_forward.htm>. (website)

[8]Yang, Dennis Tao. China's Agricultural Crisis and Famine of 1959–1961: A Survey and Comparison to Soviet Famines.<http://www.palgrave-journals.com/ces/journal/v50/n1/full/ces20084a.html>. (website)

[9]Frederick C. Teiwes, Warren Sun. China's road to disaster: Mao, central politicians, and provincial leaders in the unfolding of The Great Leap forward. Pg 339-378

[10] Roderick MacFarquhar, Timothy Cheek, Eugene Wu (eds), The Secret Speeches of Chairman Mao - From the Hundred Flowers to the Great Leap Forward (video documentary)

[11]Frederick C. Teiwes, Warren Sun. China's road to disaster: Mao, central politicians, and provincial leaders in the unfolding of The Great Leap forward. Pg 339-378

[12]Frederick C. Teiwes, Warren Sun. China's road to disaster: Mao, central politicians, and provincial leaders in the unfolding of The Great Leap forward. Pg 798-805

[13] Frederick Teiwes and Warren Sun, China's Road to Disaster - Mao, Central Politicians, and Provincial Leaders in the Unfolding of the Great Leap Forward 1955-1959 (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 1998) (video documentary)

[14] Frederick Teiwes and Warren Sun, China's Road to Disaster - Mao, Central Politicians, and Provincial Leaders in the Unfolding of the Great Leap Forward 1955-1959 (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 1998) (video documentary)

[15]Perkins, Dwight. China's Economic Policy and Performance. Pg 1231-1236

[16]Frederick C. Teiwes, Warren Sun. China's road to disaster: Mao, central politicians, and provincial leaders in the unfolding of The Great Leap forward .pg 213-239

[17]Dikötter, Frank. Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe. (pg 481-492)

[18]Yang, Dennis Tao. China's Agricultural Crisis and Famine of 1959–1961: A Survey and Comparison to Soviet Famines.<http://www.palgrave-journals.com/ces/journal/v50/n1/full/ces20084a.html>. (website)

[19]Richard King, Zhun Li, Yigong Zhang. Heroes of China's great leap forward: two stories. Pg175-188

[20]Yang, Dali L. Calamity and Reform in China: State, Rural Society, and Institutional Change (pg 336-345)

[21] Peter J. Seybolt, Throwing the Emperor from His Horse - Portrait of a Village Leader in China, 1923-1995 (video documentary)

[22]Frederick Teiwes and Warren Sun, China's Road to Disaster(video documentary BBC)

[23] Jasper Becker, Hungry Ghosts - China's Secret Famine (Henry Holt, 1998, documentary)

[24] Li Zhisui, The Private Life of Chairman Mao - The Memoirs of Mao's Personal Physician(quote by personal physician)

[25] Roderick MacFarquhar, Timothy Cheek, Eugene Wu (eds), The Secret Speeches of Chairman Mao - From the Hundred Flowers to the Great Leap Forward (documentary)